HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC TECHNOLOGY & SOCIETY IN THE 20th CENTURY

Copyright © 2006-2008 Vera Pavri-Garcia

LECTURE 1

Scientific Technology and Society in the 20th Century – Course Introduction

I. Defining Science and Technology

- Term scientist only coined in 1840
- Prior to this, term natural philosophy used
- Natural philosophy: “the attempt to understand and explain the workings of the natural world”
- While term technology can be found as early as 17th century, used to describe treatise or study of industrial (practical) arts
- Term technology only popularized after WWII
- prior to this, terms used were “practical arts,” “applied science” and “engineering”
- breaking down term: teks is Indo-European root word meaning to fabricate or weave; in Greek, tekton refers to carpenter or builder and tekhne to art, craft or skill

II. Re-examining the History of Science and Technology

- course surveys origins of modern science and technology from late 19th to 20th century
- in past, focus in history of science has been on individuals whose knowledge, theories and ideas most closely resemble our understanding of science today- linear perspective
- leads to what is known as “great man’s history” (often European centered)
- this is a history of science equated with geniuses whose findings have “revolutionized” the field
- this has also meant that theories or ideas that do not mesh with this linear perspective are ignored or dismissed
- also ignores contributions of individuals and groups from other cultures
- in terms of history of technology, many popular theories have been offered to explain technological development
- these include theories such as: technological determinism and economic needs approach
- lets look at these theories and see what are some of the MAJOR PROBLEMS with them:


III. Popular theories of Technological Development Re-examined

A. Technological Determinism

i. Defining Determinism

- Technological determinism is a viewpoint that regards technology as the prime agent of social and organizational change
- Technology is seen as an independent entity that changes and shapes society. It is an “autonomous force” that once invented, appears to have a “life of its own.”
- Once an object is invented, this artifact then transforms society and the way humans interact with one another; central to this idea is that human agents have almost no control over a technology once it has been built
- Technological determinism thus offers a linear account of technology development that is inherently progressive
- Historian Heilbroner explains that determinists assume that technological change follows a roughly ordered sequence of development and imposes certain social and political characteristics upon the society in which it is found
- The idea that technology is the “cause” of social, political, economic and cultural change is the central element in determinist theories of technological change
- Technology is thus the “driving force of history” that can have a revolutionary impact on relatively passive societies

ii. Popularity of Theory and Problems with Determinism

- Ideas of technological determinism are most pervasive in popular discourse
- According to historians Marx and Smith, “It is typified by sentences in which “technology,” or a surrogate like “the machine,” is made the subject of an active predicate: “The automobile created suburbia.” “The atomic bomb divested Congress of its power to declare war.” “The mechanical cotton-picker set off the migration of southern black farm workers to northern cities.” “The robots put the riveters out of work.” “The Pill produced a sexual revolution.”
- In each case a complex event is made to seem the inescapable yet strikingly plausible result of a technological innovation
- Ironically, what makes determinist accounts of technological change frightening is also what makes them appealing: while technologies may appear to be out of control, humans are in turn absolved of their own responsibilities regarding the impact of technological development

iii. Alternative theories

- technological determinists have been criticized for simplifying what is a far more complex relationship between society and technological change
- Theories such as the social construction of technology and the social shaping of technology have been developed to refute the notion of technological determinism
- Generally, these theorists argue that determinists place technology outside society, and neglect to account for the human factor in technological innovation
- Determinists fail to see technologies as part of a pattern of social and cultural use and by doing so absolve humans of their own responsibilities regarding the use of technologies.
- Technological determinism is also universalistic; it does not account for the fact that technological development, innovation and use varies within different groups and cultures.
- According to historians Williams and Edge, “choices are inherent in both the design of individual artifacts and systems and in the direction or trajectory of innovation programs.”

B. Necessity is the Mother of Invention

- economic approach to technological development whereby technologies are created according to the particular needs or wants of society; “necessity is the mother of invention”
- Assumption is that technological development follows a fixed one-way path and can be explained by referring to economic laws, etc...
- while this may be true for a certain category of invention, the major criticism of this idea is the assumption that the inventors of a technology actually know what their technology will be used for
- as we will see time and time again in this class, inventors of a technology may not actually know how users will respond to their technology; in many instances comparisons will often be made to older technologies
- leads to idea of UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES related to technological development
- In addition, human beings have a variety of needs, not all of them economic; people produce technologies for power, fame, honor, pride, fear, greed, curiosity, etc…
- economic necessity also does not explain technologies that are invented at one time, but are used at a later date
- example: windmills introduced into England around 1185 but spread only in 13th century after landowners thought they could be profitable venture
- instead of necessity as mother of invention, might be more prudent to argue that new inventions often create needs that must then be satisfied by new technologies

Instead of viewing the history of science and technology in ways mentioned above, this course aims to show via a historical perspective that we can get a better understanding of how science and technology have developed if we:

a. take into account the particular social and institutional settings in which scientific and technological practice takes place

b. realize that scientists themselves are not merely disinterested practitioners who seek “truth.” Rather, their social and cultural beliefs will often permeate what kinds of information they seek; the methods they use and how they interpret their findings

c. acknowledge that while individual contributions are important, science has often been a collaborative enterprise and the very definition of what constitutes “good science” had undergone significant shifts over time

d. understand that there have been limitations regarding who does science (and does not) and whose knowledge is considered valid or credible. This also has a direct impact on the historic relationship between practitioners of science and technology.

e. understand that history of technology not just about focusing on particular “revolutionary” technologies or “great inventors. “ Most technologies are not created by just one individual; ideas about technology are often taken from older sources.

f. understand that social and cultural factors play a KEY role in the success or failure of new technologies, and why are some technologies successful in one area and not in another

g. realize that the interaction between technology and science is not a one way street; society shapes technology just as technology can help shape society


IV. Course Material and Themes

- this course will be organized around several recurring themes as a way of helping you focus as you study and try to digest the material:

The Relationship between Science and Technology

- In the past history of technology was usually subsumed under histories of science or economics (i.e. technology as “applied science)
- Critics have argue against this by stating that scientists & engineers have always had different norms and values within their own communities
- For example, science is about obtaining an abstract understanding of the universe while technology is about obtaining practical knowledge
- critics also contend that while technical knowledge differs from scientific knowledge (i.e. efficiency and design functionality), they are two equal sets of knowledge
- while even today there is a debate about the relationship between science and technology (i.e. whether they are intimately linked or complete separate endeavors), until the 19th century, the relationship between science and technology was very separate, and in fact technology (and the people who practiced it) was seen as something inferior to natural philosophy or the study of nature “for its own sake” (see Hong article)

B. How Users Shape new Technologies

- instead of inventors, it is often users themselves that actually determine how a technology will be used and what shape it will take
- unintended consequences of using new technologies
- social, cultural factors play large role in success or failure of new techs
- prime examples: telephone, radio, personal computer, internet

C. Science, Technology and Issues of Race, Class and Gender

- Have certain technologies been designed or created in favor of one gender over another?
- We will also explore how science and technology have been used to exploit or oppress different cultures in the 20th century
- Examples: Robert Moses, highway bridges racial segregation in New York
- Nazi medicine in WWII, eugenics movement

D. The Management of New Technologies

- Are certain technologies conducive to a particular management structure?
- How do societies control, manage and monopolize technologies and burgeoning industries? (patents, standards, etc…)
- What is the purpose of large state driven technological programs?

V. Examining the Historic Relationship between Science and Technology
(Sungook Hong, History and Technology, 15, 1999, pp. 289-311)


a. General Overview

- natural philosophy and technical arts throughout most of history were done by different sets of people
- intellectuals versus artisans – goals of each were different
- natural philosophers wanted to discuss natural phenomena for theological or philosophical purposes, while artisans wanted to create practical and useful artifacts
- status of engineers rises in Renaissance
- greater contact with university scholars
- rise in experimental methods; use of instruments
- prior to Scientific Revolution, experiments shunned – Aristotle claimed that experimentation would not reveal true picture of nature
- new social spaces: coffeehouses, salons, pubs, societies
- rise of newly created colleges and research labs
- individuals with interests in both science and technology


b. What is the relationship between science and technology?

- some see relationship between science and technology as intimately connected since time of ancient civilizations; to make distinctions between them meaningless
- others see science and technology as two distinct activities with their own methods, norms and communities
- historical events can be interpreted in number of different ways
- i.e. Thomas Edison – some see his work as separation of technology from science; others state that he could not have been successful without help of physicist employees like F. Upton


Viewpoint 1: Intimate Connections

- Marxist historians and philosophers of science
- Pre-Socratic Greeks like Thales and Anixamander practiced both natural philosophers as well as technical arts
- Relationship diminished with philosophies of Plato and Aristotle
- Plato for example, in his book The Republic, believes in separating pursuit of natural knowledge from mundane activities of craft and technology
- Should not study astronomy or mathematics for practical purposes
- Completely separate endeavors
- Thinking changes in 16th and 17th century
- Francis Bacon – “industrial philosophy of science”
- Science done for practical purposes
- Today – actor-network theory – Bruno Latour and Michael Callon
- Scientific facts cannot be separated from artifacts

Viewpoint 2: Distinctive Entities

- historians of technology – mid 20th century
- history of technology often subsumed under histories of science or economics
- wanted to dispute idea that technology is driven by scientific discoveries or economic need
- two common misconceptions: “applied-science thesis” and “linear model” of technological development
- argue against these ideas by stating that scientists and engineers have different norms and values within their established communities
- abstract understanding versus practical knowledge
- while technical knowledge differs from scientific knowledge – efficiency and design functionality – both are equal sets of knowledge
- examples: Industrial Revolution – inventions such as textile machines, steam engines, railways had little scientific knowledge behind them
- modern science: debates whether modern technology heavily relies on scientific knowledge
- pro: mathematical analysis; controlled experiments; scientific laws like thermodynamics and genetics; new natural phenomena
- con: interactive process between scientific and technology knowledge leads to new engineering sciences
- project Hindsight – 1960’s – Department of Defense – looked at development of military defense system
- researchers found 0.3% events relied on scientific; 90% had technical origin; 8% applied science
- project Traces – National Science Foundation – contraceptives, electron microscope, VCR’s all rooted in basic scientific research

c. Why Does this Matter?

- think about issues like funding, basic research, policy questions


LECTURE 2

Science, Technology and the Birth of Modern Industry

I. Characteristics of First Industrial Revolution

- starts in England in 1780s
- shift from agriculture to mechanization of production, elaboration of factory system and development of global markets (colonization) needed to support industrial production
- rapid technological changes: development of textile mills, mass-produced iron, coal, steam engines, railroads
- technological developments not necessarily dependent on science (i.e. steam engine created by craftsman who had little or no scientific knowledge)
- four features of industrial revolution: new energy resources (non-renewable), new organization of labor in factory system (machines, wage labor, new working class), new means of financing industrial development (colonies, private banking, free trade, accumulation of capital), ideological changes (Marxism)

II. Second Industrial Revolution - Overview

- major centers: Germany and United States, who themselves were trying to catch up to British lead in industrialization
- Germany: rise of technical schools, unification (1861), massive industrialization, internal free trade practices, educational reforms
- Educational reforms include: rise of technical schools; changes in university system (i.e. standard texts, research labs, need for PhD)
- In US and Germany, major changes in engineering education and professionalization of field
- Developments in steel-making which started in first industrial revolution also start to help economies of countries other than Britain
- US steel output: 70,000 tons in 1870; 1.25M in 1880, 10M by 1900, 26.1M in 1910 (Andrew Carnegie – major US steel maker)
- 2nd IR is also characterized by new technologies like the internal combustion engine which was developed as alternative to steam engine by 1880s
- advantages over steam engines: cleaner, used cheaper goal gas; run at half speed; start and stop easily; less labor needed
- MOST IMPORTANT FEATURE of 2nd IR is the merging of science, technology and industry and the development of organized research programs in science
- for example, new scientific developments in chemical research (dyes, bleaches, cleaning agents) and electricity lead to development of new techno-scientific based industries

a. The Science of Electricity in the 18th Century

- Faraday and electromagnetic induction (magnet creates electric current in copper wire) in 1821
- mechanically generated electricity created but could not be used for practical purposes until late 1800’s
- inefficient techniques for power production
- in 1856, Maxwell mathematizes electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s work) which allows for more experiments to take place
- in 1870’s, better dynamos for creating electrical power from mechanical energy of rotating magnet are created
- allows for electricity to be produced at cheap rates
- By late 1880’s, electricity used in other areas such as streetcars
- Electric motor produces machinery, used in steel and chemical production
- Costs for electricity also decrease with new technological innovations such as cables, insulation, switches, fuses, lamp sockets

b. The Science of Chemistry in the 18th Century

- in 1800’s, many scientific advances made in chemistry
- John Dalton – atomic theory to chemistry – elements can be combined to form compounds that are numerically proportioned
- creation of chemical equations allows for better understanding of chemical reactions; this allows for new industrial processes
- organic chemistry and production of new synthetic materials (fibers, plastics, antibiotics)
- dyestuff and pharmaceutical industries really start to benefit from greater organized research
- first synthetic dye in 1856 by British William Perkin – mauveine
- while British do not really pursue this field, Germany does, and this leads to establishment of new industrial research labs
- in 1870, 15000 organic compounds by 1910 there are 150000
- celluloid was first plastic produced in 1869; bakelite in 1909
- new chemical process of electrolysis (chemical reaction produced by electric current) produces things like aluminum, chlorine, alkali, chlorates, hydrogen peroxide


III. The Rise of Techno-Science Based Industries in the United States

- techno-science based are industries where there is scientific research application of scientific knowledge to the production of goods
- starts in late 19th century
- scientific knowledge especially important in electrical and chemical industries
- in 1880’s rise of electrical industry in United States- dominated by small number of corporations
- while US does have chemical industries established, only take off after WWI because of patent seizures and establishment of protective tariffs
- engineering knowledge and accomplishments in the field eventually extend to other traditional industries like steel, petroleum, automotive
- rise of new engineering schools whose graduates then enter industry become part of new corporate structure
- leads to what Noble calls “monopoly over science” where science transformed into capital (Braverman)

IV. Patents

- how? Patents help control products of scientific technology and eventually play role in process of scientific production (industrial research)
- What is a patent? Generally, a patent is an official (legal) document that allows an individual(s) or company to have the sole right to make, use or sell a specified invention for a fixed period of time. Patent rights help exclude other people from making, selling or using the patented invention
- Governments offer patent rights to people in exchange for making details of their invention “public”
- Advantages of the patent system include: giving people the incentive to invent new things; providing a means for them to safely disclose their inventions, providing avenues for investment (bring product to market), further research (improving on earlier patents)
- Disadvantages: patents can limit competition and consumer choice; patents can prevent people from using products that might help better society; legal disputes can be costly and time consuming

V. Electrical Industries in United States

- industrial really starts to develop between 1880-1920
- electrical revolution occurs when scientific knowledge combined with technological enterprise
- key features of modern industry developed here: systematic patent procedures, organized industrial research labs and technical training programs
- three main companies: General Electric, Westinghouse and American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T)

i. Arc Lighting

- arc light = electric arc formed by leaping gap between two electrodes
- used for street lights, commercial and public buildings
- major innovations in dynamos and arc lamps initially NOT patentable and result: lots of competition between manufacturers
- how to get around this: companies like Thomson-Houston Electric developed excellent arc lighting products and patented aspects of technology that made it impossible for other groups to create same product
- also try to buy out or merge with competitors to secure other patents
- all of this done in effort to create a monopoly
- success: company becomes dominant firm in arc lighting systems

ii. Incandescent Lighting

- development of mercury vacuum pump in 1865 and improvements in electric dynamo (1870’s) make incandescent lighting a commercially viable product
- Thomas Edison: takes advantage of technical developments such as vacuum pumps, filaments to create light bulb
- Creates successful industry with research laboratory, better methods of generation
- Thomas Edison – Edison Electrical Light Company
- Menlo Park labs in New Jersey have full time staff whose job is to come up with new inventions
- Creation of inventions now business-like task (10 days for minor inventions; 3 months for bigger ones)
- Edison: how to get electrical lighting to compete with gas: make price the same and then figure out how to lower costs through new inventions
- gets individuals to invest in company: bankers, presidents of other companies, partners
- Edison also hires Francis Upton, a physicist (think social spaces)
- by 1879 produces first successful incandescent light and in three years begins to operate Pearl Street central power station in NY
- by 1889 all small manufacturing companies under Edison’s name (those that produce lamps, dynamos, etc…) and the Sprague Electric & Railway Motor company are merged to form Edison General Electric Company
- In 1892, Thomas-Houston and Edison merge to form General Electric Co.
- WHY all these merges? To get control of vital patents (i.e. Sprague Electric) and to make use of patents owned by other company without worrying about potential lawsuits (i.e. Thomas-Houston)
- at same time, Edison faces competition from Westinghouse who introduces alternative (AC) system in 1885
- Westinghouse dominated field by purchasing patents from Nicola Tesla in 1881 and by taking control of patents and eliminating other competitors
- Thus both GE and Westinghouse monopolized electric industry but are in constant competition with each other
- as a result: by 1896 there are 300 patent disputes between both of them which created potential of costly legal battles
- solution: both companies enter into patent agreement under joint Board of Patent Control – corporate patent pooling

VI. Chemical Industries in the United States

- in US, chemical industry takes off in 1850’s but only becomes “science-based” with organized R&D in WWI
- in 1880s chemical industry emerges to supply basic chemicals such as acids, inorganic salts and alkalis to manufacturers as well as dyestuffs
- however, US industries have to compete with imports and faced German monopolies in dyestuffs and organic chemicals
- for example, in 1870’s Germany had 50% of world market for dyes and 88% by 1913, just prior to WWI
- Great expansion in US chemical industry in late 19th century but had problems because this industry dominated by Germany – synthetic organic chemistry was prime area of science based research
- Dyestuff comps in US had problems: powerful textile and paper industries prevented protective tariffs that would protect US manufacturers because they wanted cheap German products
- Germans had secured “product patents” which prevented others from producing same goods, even if by different process
- by 1912, 98% of patent applications were owned by German firms who did not even practice in US
- what changes all this: WWI
- US government takes all German owned patents and tries to sell them to US corporations
- small companies protest this as unfair and patents eventually placed in trust; companies then issued licenses by Chemical foundation
- tariff now implemented to protect US companies
- beneficiaries: large corporations like Dupont, Kodak, Bausch and Lomb
- further consolidations in 1920’s creates three dominant companies: Union Carbide and Carbon, Dupont and Allied Chemical and Dye

VII. Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management

- Fredrick Taylor first published Principles of Scientific Management in 1911
- Taylor believed that scientific laws which govern natural world should be applied to workplace
- claimed that workers would be more productive if the same scientific axioms used for machines were applied to activities of labor
- wanted to design management system that would reorganize the conditions of work in factory
- aware of inefficiencies that hamper factory production – worked as manager, foreman and engineer at Midvelle Stelco Plant
- convinced low production fault of both managers and workers: foreman would abuse power and take advantage of position to bribe friends, protect friends
- workers engage in soldiering: work slowly to keep piece rates high and protect jobs
- management also did not have technical knowledge to keep track of labor production

a. Aspects of Scientific Management

Scientific management based on four major principles:

substitution of science for individual judgment
scientific selection of workmen
greater cooperation between management and workers
work should be governed by scientific laws

- believed traditional working knowledge gave laborers unfair advantage over management
- management should acquire more knowledge through time studies so that “brain work” removed from shop floor and placed within planning department
- information produced in planning department then presented to worker in written order
- foreman would then be replaced by series of man
- workers would be paid according to incentive wage system that rewarded them only if they men production standard that was determined scientifically


b. Why Was Scientific Management Introduced in Early 20th Century?

- economic historians like Henry Braverman argue that scientific management created solely as response to growing labor problems faced by US manufacturers – “capitalist mode of management”
- control of alienated labor and allow management to monopolize all aspects of labor activity
- here, tools and techniques taken as given
- argue that Taylorism not concerned with advances in technology and that it is one of the factors responsible for decline of labor
- dismisses connection between new management theories and growth of unprecedented technological changes in workplace
- other academics disagree with Braverman and suggest too much emphasis placed on labor and not enough to growth of large, technically intensive corporations in late 19th and early 20th centuries
- Braverman’s thesis thus lack historical context because it does not take into account the unprecedented growth of large scale factories in US
- These factories had heavy reliance on mechanical technologies; this requires large amounts of fixed capital
- also, new machines only profitable if used to full capacity
- yet problems here with co-ordination between production compartments
- inefficiencies leading to “bottlenecks” in system
- question: how to produce goods at lowest possible prices?
- answer: better methods of organization
- thus Taylorism is not causing traditional craft labor to decline but occurs because this trend already happening
- link between efficiency movement in US and Taylorism
- emphasis on labor also ignores fact that Taylor was engineer and believed strongly in technical efficiency – ideas not just about improving work times for labor, but also on work design and cost control
- high speed tool steel and monthly account balancing

c. Impact of Taylorism

- again there is debate
- Braverman: scientific management capitalist tool that successfully subordinates labor interests by fragmenting work and redistributing tasks amongst semi-skilled and unskilled labor
- separated conception of work from execution
- thus scientific management cheapens and exploits labor in way unprecedented in history
- others argue that this type of analysis overestimates impact of scientific management on workers
- ideas of fragmenting jobs, using semi-skilled and unskilled labor, standardizing tasks not new: had been around since first I.R.
- also, scientific management was initially opposed by BOTH workers and management
- until WWI, lots of worker strikes; protests by American Federation of Labor
- management also does not want to share profits with workers or increase their wages
- also owners don’t want to invest so heavily in new personnel departments
- until 1920’s very few companies actually implement strategies

d. Alternative Ideas

- must look at impact of Taylorism over longer period of time
- during WWI even AFL begins to support new management movement
- this is done by “humanizing” scientific management: offer new incentives like job ladders, welfare benefits and new industrial safety standards
- Taylor supporters told unions that scientific management would force industries to give workers such things as detailed work rules, specific formulas for governing wages, and the explicit delineation of all jobs
- these issues were increasingly important to labor after WWI
- popularity of Taylorism also increases with growing number of engineers entering management profession
- in 1899: 348,000 salaried employees in industry; by 1929 there are 1.496M and many of them are now engineers
- expansion of engineering education – course in scientific management taught in universities
- this spreads ideas into all industries; not just electrical and chemical fields
- assess Taylorism as practice versus ideology
- separate Taylor’s ideas of technical or organizational reorientation of workplace and his methods of altering work patterns
- more successful with former than latter
- successes: better purchasing and inventory control methods, new information gathering tools like inventory and budget controls, financial reporting systems, tasks reports
- not so successful: scientific production standards, piece rates, etc…
- perhaps most significant aspect of Taylorism: helped convince industry professionals about need for management bureaucracy
- while ideas not entirely new, helps synthesize ideas about need for changes in how industry organized and managed
- makes engineer an indispensable tool in workforce
- fields like industrial psychology pushed by Taylorist ideology



LECTURE 3
The Automobile and the Rise of Mass Production in the United States

I. Early American System of Manufacturing

- In the United States, we start to see a really distinctive way of manufacturing that started during the first industrial revolution
- Labeled “The American System of Manufacturing” it is characterized by:
- A. the use of specialized machinery (single or special purpose machine tools)
- B. standardization
- C. interchangeable parts
- Interchangeable and standardized parts: prior to these developments, most machines were hand-crafted which meant that if something broke, you would have to go to the original manufacturer to have it fixed because each machine is different; no two are alike
- With interchangeable and standardized parts, all machines are created alike; this is because each part of the machine is created from a mould and these parts are interchangeable
- This means that if a part of your machine breaks, you can now replace that broken part with a standard part that can fit any like machine
- the use of highly specialized machine tools were used in factories and arranged in a particular way to facilitate continuous flow of production
- Rosenberg: what were economic, social and political developments that created market for mass produced goods in the United States?

II. Interchangeable Parts

a. History

- development of interchangeable parts brings about uniformity and precision
- although ideas can be traced back to 18th century France, idea of uniform parts associated with American System of manufacturing
- Eli Whitney – inventor and manufacturer of muskets – late 18th/early 19th centuries
- By 1798 Whitney near bankruptcy; wanted to get into arms manufacturing
- Approached Secretary of US – offered to build muskets with new design by 1800; would supply 10000 muskets to treasury even though no manufacturer had produced even 5000 guns a year
- government gave him capital to set up system
- Whitney aware of French experiments and sells idea of interchangeability: instead of having craftsmen, have tools to make tools and produce items that are alike and interchangeable
- by 1801 Whitney gives demonstration; by 1809 comes up with guns
- yet when researchers started tracing Whitney’s achievements they find that Whitney’s rifles in fact NOT interchangeable; machinery used not modern for time
- Whitney actually getting bits and pieces of parts from all over and then used metal files to get parts to fit (parts would be matched up by filing)
- look at Whitney as one dedicated to idea of interchangeability rather than one who created process
- one thing Whitney did develop were jigs and gages; for every part you would have a model to hold it up against

b. Role of the Military and Intermediary Industries

- innovations regarding interchangeable parts really take place at US Ordnance Department, armories
- machine made interchangeable parts allows for production of small arms
- machine tool industry stems from this small arms industry
- *one reason why government takes this up is because initially, practice is not very cost-effective and military one area where there is lots of capital
- idea of interchangeability not necessarily linked to cost reductions at this time but more to controlling process
- knowledge about these processes were eventually transferred to other industries as people who worked for one company then moved to another
- example: Henry Leland – worked at Springfield armory, went to Brown and Sharpe Manufacturing Company which manufactured machine tools and sewing machines and finally created own auto company (Cadillac and then Lincoln Motor company)
- some companies used aspects of above techniques but did not incorporate them entirely – this is what Ford did
- example: Singer Manufacturing Company
- relied more on marketing and advertising techniques to create business than on interchangeable parts, etc…
- for example, used jig, fixture and gauging system developed from arms production, but still used workers to hand fit machine parts together
- emphasis on quality of machines- dependence on skilled machinists
- used skilled filers and adjusters to create uniform products
- one reason why they did not succeed in creating interchangeable parts: could not afford cost of ensuring standards met (i.e. machine care, inspections, etc…)
- 1853: 800 machines; 1856: 2500; 1859: 11000
- by 1870’s were producing 100000’s of machines and by 1880 over 500000
- also look at McCormick reaper works, typewriter industries
- bicycle manufacturers especially important: forerunner of automobile industry
- one important idea to consider in this period: manufacturers were not necessarily selling cheapest goods; in fact, opposite was often true
III. The Ford Motor Company and Mass Production

a. Early Years

- interchangeable parts and mass production really come together with Ford
- changes took place in 1908-1915
- important to focus on changes in factory and machine design AND labor
- 1906 experiments began on Model T car and completed by 1908: “car for the masses”
- one piece, twenty horsepower, magneto fired engine
- simple design and easy to repair, inexpensive
- reduction in price: car costs $825 when average price for other cars around $1800; by 1912-13 cost around $613, later years would be $230
- Ford not first to develop automobile; however, in Europe, automobiles seen as toy for rich – elitist mentality – market that people had in mind
- Ford had vision that car should be in every person’s garage
- never took out profits from company; put them back into production
- high skilled mechanics in company were free to experiment in areas like machine tool design and placement, fixture design, gauging, factory layout, quality control and materials handling
- prior to mass production: previously purchased parts put together by teams of workmen in three story plant until 1905

b. Ford and ASM

- Ford forms own manufacturing company in 1905 with financial wiz James Couzens and starts manufacturing parts
- in manufacturing plant, Ford hires Walter E. Flanders who was a machine tool salesman; had previously worked for Singer
- helps show Ford the links between buying materials, production, selling
- around this time, Ford begins to see importance of interchangeability
- uniform parts essential to produce a high volume of goods; benefits of single or special purpose machine tools
- Ford Motor Company starts taking off in 1907
- Flanders leaves but not before information passed on to Ford
- team of gifted mechanics now responsible for Model T effort; had to keep up with increasing demand
- P.E. Martin and Charles Sorenson were responsible for this increased production
- Emphasized operations sheets: detailed machining operations on various parts, needed material inputs, tools, fixtures and gauges and factory layout - began to rearrange machine tools in sequence
- used knowledge from other manufacturing sectors and applied them to automobile industry (i.e. Sorenson recommended that crank cases be made via stamping techniques rather than casting methods because of experiences in bicycle plants)

c. Highland Park

- Ford bought 60 acre tract of land in 1906 in North edge of Detroit and called area Highland Park
- needed a large factory because present one was not big enough
- manufacturing and production factory
- new factory opens in 1910
- in 1909 Ford had already decided to build only Model T and that other cars would consist of similar components
- one four story building 865 feet in length and 75 feet in width; adjacent buildings connected via crane way to allow materials to be moved around with ease
- Highland Park built around principles of power, accuracy, economy
- power: distributed throughout factory via electric motors which drove assembly line belts
- accuracy: no car was tested before completion; belief was that if it parts were standard and accurate and car put together correctly, it would work
- economy: linked to continuity and speed of system
- for example, machine tools were grouped close together so that parts would not accumulate in aisles
- ensured smooth flow of production
- placement of machine tools also ensured that work at each station kept to minimum; everything within easy reach
- calculated rates of input and output: average output of a machine tool calculated and recorded for scheduling purposes
- production schedule then dictated what machines were to be in use and which ones would be shut off
- machines both manufactured within plant and bought from tool builders
- timing is key as parts are brought from one station to another just before new process begins

d. Development of the Assembly Line

- assembly line is concept that promotes regularity; developed in 1913
- Ford felt pressure to increase production of Model Ts, but could not do so under old system of production
- assembly gang problems: time limits, proper delivery of materials
- simplicity of machine tools had to be combined with speed and accuracy
- developed concept of mechanized conveyor belts: this idea found in other industries: Westinghouse Airbrake company had similar mold carrier belts
- meatpackers (disassembly lines), breweries, flour mills, canneries
- first assembly line in 1913; in five years company goes from producing 6000 cars to 200000 and had brought down costs
- Ford designed all operations so that they could be used by unskilled workers
- job training: ½ to 1 day
- shift from group assembly to assembly lines increase output
- example: 29 workers who used to assemble 35-40 magnetos (part of transmission assembly) a day at workbenches now put together 1,188
- reduction in man hours: car assembly production goes from 12.5 to 6 hours; eventually to 93 minutes
- movement is set to speed up slower workers, slow down faster ones
- by November 1913 entire engine assembly (made up of several subassemblies) are put onto an assembly line
- leads to development of chassis (frame of motor vehicle) assembly line
- by end of 1914, three assembly lines operating
- workmen putting together 1,212 chassis assemblies in 8 hours
- max profits gained by max production, minimal costs
- important however, to realize mass production not just about goods
- mechanization, high wages, low prices, large volume output

IV. Taylorism and Ford’s Mass Production Techniques

- time and motion studies needed for layout of final assembly line
- workmen selected for particular tasks
- standardized work routines
- division of labor and management
- semi-skilled and unskilled workers hired by engineers to run machines
- despite these similarities, Ford denies relying on scientific management principles
- instead, there is debate whether such ideas already anticipated by manufacturers
- could Ford company have been “Taylorized” without Taylor?
- while Taylor wanted to improve upon existing ways of doing work, Ford believed in mechanizing processes that were once done by labor
- here, machine sets pace of work
- many of Taylor’s ideas no longer viable

VII. Labor Problems

- mechanized assembly line process reduces need for number of workers; especially skilled workers
- brings about many labor problems
- high turnover rates: 380% in 1913
- company had to hire 963 men to add 100 to its personnel
- high turnover comes with greater unionization which could lead to strikes
- company introduces series of labor reforms
- 13% increase in pay to all workers given in October 1913: minimum daily wage set at $2.34
- reward workers who remained with company with 10% bonus in December (only 640 out of 15000 qualified)
- still much unrest
- led to Ford’s solution at beginning of 1914: set wages at five dollars a day
- very important development in solidifying mass production effort
- could become consumers as well as producers
- in exchange for very high earnings, workers had to agree to become part of mass production effort
- workers also subject to Ford’s sociological department – in order to qualify for profit sharing, workers first had to be psychologically assessed
- employed all kinds of workers: minorities, physically challenged, immigrants with little English skills provided they would become “100% American”; they were given lessons on proper hygiene, house keeping, meals, proper dress, ESL, etc…
- need for absolute control over everything would hurt Ford later on

VIII. Ford and General Motors

- unchanging Model T concept gives way to need for variety by 1920’s
- “search for novelty”
- annual model changes brought forth by Ford’s competitor, Alfred B. Sloan Jr. and General Motors
- William Knudsen, former Ford employee becomes Chevrolet’s President; resigned from Ford Motor Company because Ford overrode many of his decisions
- in 1921, Ford has 55% of market share; by 1926, 30%
- end of Model T run in 1927
- GM: sell cars whose features changed annually; style and comfort over utility; marketing over production
- leads to concept of “flexible mass production” where planning for change has to be taken into account; not just producing maximum amount of goods at minimum cost
- GM assembly production based on general purpose machine tools; not single purpose ones
- Introduction of customer credit
- period of transition from 1925-1933



LECTURE 4
Science, Technology and WWI

I. General Considerations

- WWI (1914-1918): 10M lives lost
- although many new weapons developed from mid 19th century onwards, never used in prolonged war between major powers
- while new technologies are introduced during WWI, initial war strategies and tactics did not change in terms of choices related to time, space, transportation of men and materials
- think about differences in our knowledge about heroes and generals between WWI and WWII – WWI military often regarded as old-fashioned, unable to keep up with times
- existing technologies (railroads, telegraphs, machine gun, barbed wire) combined with newer devices: airplane, tank, poison gas
- WWI military had to figure out how the characteristics of a new technology and then decide how it should be used (i.e. its technological possibilities)
- created stalemate between countries that was only broken with US entering war (increased manpower and industrial resources)
- ideas about war not consistent with technological reality
- example: although many German soldiers embraced machine gun, cavalry armed with lances remained favorite of German Kaiser
- British and French in particular saw machine guns as “unsporting,” unfair and unethical – preference for cavalry, bayonets
- emphasis on triumph of human spirit over technical prowess

II. Naval Power

- one exception to rule: naval technologies
- skilled at propaganda and obtaining public funds which was necessity with universal suffrage (voting)
- romantic appeal: navigation, exploration, link with colonies
- naval power associated with world power; something wanted by even the smallest and poorest of nations – would give them “place in the sun”
- development of Navy Leagues – lobbies funded by coal and steel, shipyard, arms manufacturing industry; helped convince government that if navy not strong, nation would be destroyed; fueled ideas of nationalism
- innovations in naval technology had air of spectacle: 1906 Dreadnought battleship weighed 21000 tons and was equipped with 10 12-inch barrels - guns that had an 8 mile range
- made older ships obsolete with its power but created arms race between countries who feared for own security
- prior to WWI, navies become so synonymous with a country’s military strength that land armies virtually ignored; no joint planning between army and naval forces
- British Admiralty: “command of the sea”
- this means in wartime, main duties of navy is to protect trade routes, keep communications open throughout empire and prevent invasion
- countries like Germany build up their naval technology to prevent own invasion and create stalemate
- only one major battle of Dreadnoughts occur in WWI between England and Germany in 1916: no conclusive results (some dispute about this)
- prior to WWI, advances in submarine technology made by Germans
- U-19: torpedoes cause problems for British
- leads to British innovations in defensive technologies against subs; by 1917, have hydrophones that are able to detect submarines, depth charges launched from destroyers able to wipe out U-boats
- anti-submarine mines; convoys

III. Mass Combat and the Introduction of New Land and Air Weapons

- railroads and the mobilization of troops (universal military service introduced in the 19th century)
- while military initially understood relationship between transportation technologies and mobilizing troops and materials for quick initial strikes, they had little idea about what to do in event of a long war
- planned for short and not long war which would be fought by military personnel
- while Chief of Staff of British Army (Lord Kitchener) and German Chief of Staff (Moltke) did bring up idea of long drawn out war, this idea ignored by most individuals; most had expectation of eight weeks’ war
- prewar developments in weapons technology were not seen as something that would change face of warfare

a. Barbed Wire and Guns

- barbed wire becomes part of military arsenal by end of 19th century
- changes traditional tactics of surprising enemy; prevents surprise
- in late 19th century, production of rifles finally give advantage to snipers over traditional bowman
- development of glycerin recoil mechanism allows artillery weapons, which previously fired 20 rounds per minute, to become rapid fire machines
- machine gun: in 1887, 666 rounds shot in one minute by American inventor Hiram S. Maxim
- 1893 Matabel War: 50 military personnel armed with 4 Maxim machine guns defeats African warriors numbering 5000 (3000 dead)
- by 1900, repeating rifle available to military of all major powers
- by time of Russian-Japanese War (1904-5), machine guns are part of military arsenal
- data thus available regarding rate of fire and reliability of weaponry
- yet there was no real appreciation of what this would mean for massive combat and tactical use; there many concerns over whether such weapons could be used in large scale war
- for example, Chinese ambassador worried about cost of bullets
- in WWI rapid fire machine guns changed dynamics of warfare; this was difficult for military personnel familiar with traditional methods of warfare to comprehend
- one man with rifle could do work of a platoon; one with a machine gun a battalion
- other questions raised: is machine gun as offensive or defensive weapon; should it be used in flanks or in rear like artillery, should it be used by infantry units or weapons companies; how many should be used
- technology changes war tactics: mass production of gunpowder and munitions creates stalemate
- despite fact that trench warfare had been used extensively in US civil war, Europe remained quite unprepared for devastating results

b. Chemical Warfare

- Germans first used poisonous gas in April/May 1915
- chlorine; mustard gases
- devastating effects make them think twice about its continued use; many German officers embarrassed and think it “unchivalrous”
- however, while they are prepared to use it by December, Allies already have own poisons and gas masks
- over 500000 casualties from poison gas
- defensive measures (i.e. gas masks) not always successful right away (Cook article)
- was chemical gas just another war weapon or something far worse?
- larger issues: power and misuse of scientific knowledge; nationalization of scientific enterprise
- example: German chemical industry scientists involvement in manufacturing poisonous gases

c. Tanks

- developed by Great Britain by Admiralty (“land battleships”) because army did not want to work on innovation
- in Sept. 1916 the British put 20 tanks into battle but do not launch larger attack until Nov. 1917with 380 tanks
- here, British and Germans unprepared; little idea about what they could and should do with tanks
- could cross trenches and overcome machine gun fire; had to worry about fuel shortages and breakdowns


d. Airplanes

- in 1914, only 5000 airplanes in world; US produced only 49 planes
- used mostly for shows and daredevil acts
- by 1918, 200000 planes
- planes initially used for surveillance, reconnaissance; air battles will come later in the war
- pilots with machine guns produce romantic comparisons to knights jousting with each other
- life expectancy of fighter pilot only 6 weeks but many individuals preferred the life of a pilot to that of a soldier
- individual heroes vs. a nameless face in massive trench warfare

IV. State, Industry and War

- relationship between military and industrial production
- existing technologies around before war are now being mass produced
- war and tariffs: Germany loses access to imported resources like nitrates that are needed for fertilizers, explosives, etc…
- why did Germany lose? One argument is that its industrial and agricultural economy collapsed
- in contrast, when US enters war in 1917on side of British, allies are given more manpower and resources
- flexible democracy in US – state restrictions, rationing seen as necessity to governments that preached free enterprise
- US: creation of Naval Consulting Board and National Research Council between 1915-16: preparing industry for wartime production, co-ordination of scientific research
- NRC: successful in artillery, submarine detection
- Council of National Defense also created in 1916: empowered president Woodrow Wilson to take control of all essential industries, mines, transportation and communication systems, fix prices and control distribution systems when US enters war in 1917
- War Industries Board given control of industrial production: developed new industries, plants and supply sources; regulated existing ones in terms of materials produced, pricing, production and delivery priorities
- patent pooling in US under government pressure and seizing of German patents allows for greater technical developments
- technical expertise gained with European immigrants coming into country
- technologies such as typewriters, rapid printing presses, telephone, telegraph, and filing systems also crucial for war effort on home front, especially in terms of communications
- cannery and drug manufacturers help sustain soldiers in field
- 500M cans of food produced in US for army
- developments in agricultural technology also advanced enough so that men can leave farms and join army

LECTURE 5
Science, Technology and WWII


I. The Rise of “Big Science Projects”

Interwar period sets foundations for new era of “big science” projects that will become a staple of WWII and post war period. What is Big Science? According to Historians Ciesla & Trischler:

one project that is often based around a single apparatus; fusion of different scientific-technical disciplines

extensive and intensive use of both financial and human resources

c. projects financed by the state (greater involvement)

d. projects are both short, middle and long-term but are expected to produce concrete results

e. industries conduct both basic and applied research

f. political and social goals are stated as justification for development of certain projects

political goals are combined with fact that scientists have greater autonomy in setting work goals

II. US Research and Development Prior to their Entry into WWII

- Vannevar Bush – Chair of National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics
- realizes Nazi threat; does not think US is adequately equipped to handle Germany’s advanced air force
- formation of National Defense Research Council in 1940; made a branch of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) in 1941
- Bush becomes chair of this office
- members of NDRC include: Frank Jewett (President, NAS); James Conant (chemist and President of Harvard); Karl Compton (President, MIT)
- joined by members of army, navy and air force
- group did not feel comfortable relying on individual efforts in producing technologies for war; form separate inventor’s council
- instead, group wants to give contracts to corporations, institutions and individuals with proven track records in productive research
- total spent on R&D by OSRD: 337M; non-corporate institutions that benefited included MIT, Cal Tech, Harvard, Columbia, UC, John Hopkins
- corps: Western Electric (manufacturing arm of AT&T), Research Construction Corporation, GE, RCA, Westinghouse, Remington Rand, Eastman Kodak
- emphasis placed on electronic goods as opposed to more traditional materials used in war that companies like GM produced
- technologies of the future: radar, proximity fuses, computers
- development of Atomic bomb (see below) leads to development of space program (hydrogen bomb, Star Wars, Strategic Defense Initiative)
- combining industrial, educational resources under military umbrella becomes foundation for future of US technology
- military-industrial complex (term coined during Cold War): science has increasingly bigger role in society; interdependence of science and technology; increasing demands for more money, individuals and instruments for research, state use of research
- example: Research and Development (RAND) corporation set up to keep Air Force “in game” of new technological development because they do not have their own research facilities

III. Airplanes

a. Civil Aviation

- technology improves during interwar period
- i.e. water cooled engines replaced by air-cooled engines
- leads to decrease in costs because engine is lighter and can go faster
- material changes: wood to metal
- wing flaps allow heavier and more powerful planes to land safely
- Boeing, Douglas rely on military support (US Navy) during interwar period to support their research and development
- technology designed for military could then be used for civilian purposes
- commercial aviation required following: development of airports, chartered airways, safety laws, weather service, beacons for night flights
- commercial aviation in place by 1920s but only takes off in 1930s; predominant use of planes until this time was for mail
- many companies like American, TWA, Delta, Northwest and United were initially a branch of an airplane manufacturing entity; separate because of anti-trust laws in US in 1930s
- passenger driven aviation aided by development of Douglas DC-3 in 1936
- cost ¼ what it did to carry passengers in 1929
- flies farther, faster, carries more passengers, is safer

b. Jet Engine Technology

- research starts on jet engine in 1930s
- long range bombers developed for war eventually used for civilian flights; cuts in ½ costs per passenger mile
- however, hard to make them go faster
- could go as fast as 440 miles an hour, but greater speeds impossible because propellers cannot withstand pressure
- design of jet engine – prefigured in water turbines that produce electricity
- combustion causes plane to move forward by forcing jet of air out of rear of engine
- jet turns small turbine, powers compressor that pulls required air into engine
- design problems overcome when English government funds project; first practical jet engine appears by 1939
- competition between military during war years allow for solutions to problems of jet propulsion; without war developments would have been delayed by decades
- in 1943, Boeing becomes first US company to work on jet
- although they were initially behind Soviet and British industries, because they had a much larger industrial research base, they are able to solve design problems more rapidly
- also helped by hefty cold war budget: 90% of airplane research funded by military by 1960s
- Boeing 707 put into commercial market by 1958; US jet is more faster and power than European ones

IV. Radar

- Radar = RAdio Detection And Range
- It is a system that uses radio waves to detect and determine the distance, direction and/or speed of objects like aircraft, ships, etc…
- A transmitter is used to emit radio waves that are aimed at a target; these waves are then reflected by the object (target) and are detected by a receiver
- Prior to WWII, countries like Britain and Germany had radar technology that would allow them to detect aircraft, etc... via radio devices
- In 1937 the British created the first radar network called Chain Home; it could detect bombs up to 150km away
- In WWII radar used to guide larger and more accurate bombs; allows for targeting specific enemy locations (airfields, research labs)
- no guarantee of success; greater harm to civilians
- In WWII focus turned to developing high frequency radar; allies wanted to build a device which could generate powerful microwave
- problem solved by two British physicists: created device called Magnetron in 1940
- Magnetron could use waves in 3GHz range; standard was to use waves in 200-800MGz range
- Magnetron could also be used to detect smaller objects
- although it was developed in Britain, hard to perform highly secretive research because of constant bombing
- two magnetrons brought to United States on secret mission; were tested and could produce powerful microwaves
- in US, leads to development of Radiation Labs at MIT
- why did they name it thus? In order to deceive and divert people’s attention from real mission of lab
- at time nuclear physics is not really associated with military; radiation only used to treat cancer
- impact of radiation labs: relationship between science and technology
- greater interaction between physicists and engineers: physicists had to study microwave and electrical engineering, while engineers learned theoretical physics and applied them in fields like microwave engineering and electronics (quantum electronics)
- development of devices like radar used to detect incoming aircraft; primarily a defensive measure
- Germans only found out about device in 1943
- after war, proud of work they did; this is not necessarily true with atomic bomb research

V. The Manhattan Project and the Development of the Atomic Bomb

- European scientists who had immigrated to US suggest idea of atomic bomb; scientific principle had to be made into technical possibility
- group (including Einstein) writes to President Roosevelt asking him to finance project
- special committee headed by Bush investigated possibilities; turned project over to military
- Manhattan Project: Roosevelt approves 500M; by 1945 figure is 2B
- scientists working on Manhattan project are compartmentalized even though they need to share information; scientists eager to make research more “civilian” in character and retain their autonomy
- keeping information secret: many scientists voluntarily refuse to publish findings so that Germans do not obtain information
- afraid of German lead: by 1938 German scientists like Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman fire neutrons at uranium; show that matter can be transformed into energy
- creates possibility of chain reaction: splitting (fission) of an uranium atom releases neutrons causing other atoms to break up
- irony: Hitler anticipates short war and German research never takes off; with city bombings, hard to create an industrial complex
- scientists working on project realize only rare uranium 235 isotope could be used to achieve effect they wanted; by 1940 there is agreement that using less than one pound of isolated isotope would create bomb with devastating effects
- problem: 0.7% of natural uranium is of isotope 235; new experiments done with uranium 238 produced new element of plutonium; has greater explosive potential
- scientists isolate uranium 235 via three methods: gaseous diffusion, centrifuge, electromagnetic separation
- chain reactions produced using either heavy water or graphite produce plutonium
- Enrico Fermi: in 1942, produces self sustaining chain reaction; key now is to figure out how to produced uncontrolled chain reaction for bomb
- method: plutonium mass surrounded by ring of explosives; forces plutonium to implode and then explode

VI. Ethical Considerations

- experiments with bomb done in New Mexico show power is equal to 20000 tons of dynamite; fears of radiation
- bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 & 9, 1945
- in Hiroshima, 70000 killed and 96% of buildings destroyed
- this done despite fact that Germans surrendered
- Roosevelt had died in April; Truman took over as President
- scientists like Leo Szilard want the US to cease work on bomb
- what moral and ethical questions/considerations does this raise?
- some wanted bomb to be used as scare tactic; others felt this would not be enough to ensure a complete surrender
- mistrust of Soviets; although they are allies they are looked upon with suspicion
- was bomb dropped to scare them off?
- who is ultimately responsible – scientists or politicians and military leaders
- after war, start of nuclear arms race

VII. German Techno-Scientific Efforts during the War

- Hitler’s anticipation of short war stifles developments in science; mobilization of scientific and technical resources not seen as a priority as it was with the Allies
- emphasis on improving existing weapons
- prime example: Hitler stopped research on basic radar in 1940 and did not renew it until 1942
- labs in Germany run by armed forces and war industries
- one exception is aerodynamics
- here, scientists have greater autonomy and more funding as opposed to other efforts where there was greater control by military
- after war, allies look into German atomic bomb research and find it at least three years behind
- did German scientists deliberately drag their feet for humanitarian reasons?
- little evidence suggests this is true: those German scientists who opposed bomb often did so for technical reasons; second-rate scientists were placed in positions of power for political reasons

LECTURE 6

Science, Technology and Ideology during WWII and the Cold War


I. Science and Ideology

- Ideology: collection of ideas behind a theory (i.e. political, economic, religious) usually proposed by dominant members of a society to all members of a society
- It is a way of looking at things (i.e. a comprehensive vision about the world)
- how does a particular political ideology influence the way science is practiced and developed in a given environment?
- state use of science; transforming scientific content and institutions into something that is acceptable within a particular ideological framework
- examples: Soviet communists wanted “Marxist” and not “bourgeois” science; Nazis demanded having an “Aryan” as opposed to “Jewish” science, McCarthy and “anti-communism”
- characteristics: unacceptable scientists or institutions are “purged” from environment; “acceptable” scientists are recruited, trained and placed into new institutions; production of science that is acceptable to those in charge of ideological regime
- concept of rewards versus punishment; performing research that will be looked upon favorably, wrapping research (that may or may not) be acceptable in language of accepted ideology
- studying these kinds of questions does several things: shows us that science often bound up in politics of the day; that science (and scientists) rarely engage in anything that can be considered “value-free” or objective; that scientific knowledge obtained in any environment may or may not be useful
- scientists (consciously or unconsciously) choose research projects that will benefit their patrons (usually the government)
- examples of ideology having an impact on scientific and technological developments can be seen in WWII with story of Nazi Science, and Cold War era with USSR and USA

A. Nazi Science

- Historian Robert Proctor asks: was Nazi science “good quality” science?
- answer to question raises a myriad of ethical and moral considerations
- Viewpoint 1: if Nazi science not really science, no ethical issues to discuss
- groups who agree with this:
- a. German scientists who stayed in Germany: they state their scientific research was form of resistance
- b. Jewish scholars who left Germany: once they left, do not believe system could produce valid science, especially in fields where they excel like quantum mechanics and biochemistry
- c. US Military: trying to mask fact that they are recruiting German scientists in post-war period
- d. American public: Nazi science cannot be considered good science because it did not occur in a democracy; such abuses could only occur in dictatorship
- Dismissal of Nazi science makes no sense - Germans made great progress in fields like television, jet aircraft, guided missiles, computers, electron microscope, atomic fission, pesticides
- also think of technology associated with concentration camps: gas chambers, nerve gases, etc…
- German cancer research: smoke-free zones, carcinogenic food dyes, dust exposure, occupational work hazards
- question what areas of science were promoted by Nazis, how they were promoted and the links between ideology and science
- examination of Nazi science can highlight what their ideas of ethics were: while public health is promoted that includes reforms for cleaner air and water, it also includes sterilization and murder
- tobacco, lung cancer and racial hygienists: tobacco is epidemic and plague; fears of corrupting germ plasm, maternal organism
- experimental studies with research groups show that there are links between smokers and cancer: should work be cited?
- type of research directly linked to Nazi ideologies of purity and racial hygiene; Hitler very interested in these findings
- question of Nazi medical ethics: took courses, discussed obligations of physician to state, society and individual
- critical of value-free science; science should serve state
- experimentation and ethics: irony is that prior to Nazi rule, Germans developed code for conducting human experiments
- Prussian Ministry bans non-voluntary experiments, experiments on minors or those done to vulnerable or incompetent in 1900; 1931 code contains even more sanctions
- However, experiments in concentration camps are justified on basis that Jewish, gypsy groups, etc… are individuals not worthy of code of conduct because they are considered less than human, diseased
- doctors thus justify their actions based on their own idea of morality; makes their actions even worse (not lunatics without morals)

B. The Lysenko Affair

- Trofim Lysenko was an agronomist who worked in Soviet Union in 1920’s
- claimed to discover new biological process
- vernalitization: germinated seeds of various plants treated with abnormal conditions relating to environmental exposure (extreme heat, cold, etc…) so that they develop in “appropriate” way
- based on idea that If seeds exposed to extreme conditions, would not only develop but would develop in better way; increase in yields
- neo-Lamarckian program went against conventional genetics of the day
- Lysenko told to link his neo-Lamarckian inheritance views with Darwin’s ideas (i.e. survival of the fittest) and to then frame both within Marxist ideology
- Dialectical materialism: use Marxist theories related to historical and economic development and apply them to understanding the social and natural world
- Example: Lysenko’s idea that heredity not essential for growth was used as an analogy for the Soviet people – even poorest peasant could become important leader; do great things
- Lysenko’s theories appeal to Stalin; he becomes president of the Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences
- former president of Academy Vavilov rejects Lysenko’s theory and is accused of anti-Soviet and anti-revolutionary activities
- genetics research is banned in Soviet Union after WWII as being “bourgeois” science
- Lysenko given lots of funding to pursue disastrous agricultural research endeavors
- modern genetics restored in 1965
- points to remember: program did not influence other Soviet sciences like physics
- why? area too important to distort, especially given Cold War tensions with United States and race to produce bigger and better bombs

C. Science, Technology and Ideology in the United States: The Trial of Robert Oppenheimer

- considered to be “father” of Atomic bomb for his work at Los Alamos
- brilliant American physicist – studied at Harvard, Britain, Germany
- returned to Berkley in 1929
- one of the few physicists who understood the cutting edge work of quantum physics (Einstein)
- in his early years was not unsympathetic to ideas of communism
- disappointed with social and political conditions of US (unemployment)
- preference or sympathy towards socialist/communist ideas prior to war were not uncommon
- appointed as director of Los Alamos lab in 1942
- some in military were suspicious of him but General Leslie Groves who oversaw Manhattan project was strong supporter
- Oppenheimer was a scientist who believed that the only way to end the war would be to drop the bomb of populated cities; supported military decision
- this in contrast to other scientists who stated there was way to end war without dropping bomb: non-combat demonstration in front of Japanese military and politicians
- after war, still retained a lot of power; became Chairman of General Advisory Committee (GAC) of Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in 1946
- institution created to control atomic energy
- GAC composed of nine scientists; next year Oppenheimer became Director of Advanced Studies at Princeton (1947)

a. Oppenheimer’s Opposition to the Hydrogen Bomb

- Idea of super bomb based on principle of nuclear fusion not fission
- differs from physics of atomic bomb which is based on the splitting or fusion of atoms; utilization of heavy elements like uranium and plutonium
- hydrogen bomb: fusion of light elements like hydrogen – combine into high energy (helium)
- limitations on destructive power of atomic bomb; critical mass (10kgs)
- hydrogen bomb does not have this limitation; doesn’t utilize critical mass and it is possible to increase destructive element
- many scientists thought that the hydrogen bomb would be difficult to construct; did not know how to detonate hydrogen bomb
- scientists like Edward Teller assumed you could use heat from an atomic bomb to detonate hydrogen bomb but there were problems with this idea
- problem was that experiments not possible with hydrogen bomb; there was no way to make a small scale miniature which meant that nothing would be known until the actual weapons were built
- thus most initial research would be theoretical and initial future of h-bomb remained uncertain
- initially, Oppenheimer encouraged further research into hydrogen bomb but after war becomes opposed to it because he does not believe it is technically possible - believed military should develop better atomic bombs
- Oppenheimer joined by men like James Conant (chair of the NDRC) who stated hydrogen bomb was not a weapon – it was “pure evil”
- Teller was only one who constantly supported its creation
- Teller, who at one time admired Oppenheimer, soon become his enemy after Oppenheimer rejects idea of building hydrogen bomb
- peak of debate reached in 1949; Soviet Union dropped its own atomic bomb and there were fears within US government that it had capacity for hydrogen bomb
- Teller has support of Lewis Strauss (chair of Atomic Energy Commission), various senators
- Conant tells Oppenheimer to delay dealing with h-bomb issue
- GAC concluded that this type of bomb was evil and that its vast destructive power was not suitable for military purposes; it would not make the US any safer
- pro-bomb faction tried to reverse this GAC decision and had strong military support from the Joint Chiefs of Staff who argued that h-bomb could add “flexibility” in case of war and that its creation was “inevitable”
- also tried to argue that there was no difference between hydrogen bomb and other types of bombs
- eventually, Truman does grant money for h-bomb research in 1949
- support for bomb increases amongst individuals with start of Korean War, fears of Communist China, and breakthroughs in detonating techniques for the h-bomb
- h-bomb produced in 1952; has explosive power of 15B tons of dynamite
- Soviets produce similar device one year later
- treaty banning atmospheric testing between Soviets, Americans and British does not happen until 1963

b. The Trial of Robert Oppenheimer

- objections to h-bomb effort destroyed career of Oppenheimer
- people were suspicious about his real motivations
- FBI were told of Oppenheimer; people were doubtful of his loyalty and felt he had been catalyst of persuading others not to do research
- J. Edgar Hoover (head of FBI) very suspicious of Oppenheimer and conducted investigations into his life
- Teller: claimed that Oppenheimer was jealous of his work on h-bomb and that he was politically naïve; hinted that Oppenheimer had discouraged others to work on bomb and had deliberately manipulated scientists
- Why? Teller had trouble recruiting top class physicists to project even after he was given funding by Truman; did not have the strong personality of Oppenheimer
- Lewis Strauss also against Oppenheimer
- Strauss was former banker and self-educated; proud about his own scientific knowledge and believed he was qualified for position as head of Atomic Energy Commission
- Oppenheimer once made fun of Strauss about his knowledge of radio isotopes during a public inquiry; wanted revenge and did not like fact Oppenheimer was more influential than himself
- President Eisenhower: trusted loyalty of Oppenheimer but agreed that he had too much influence on other scientists; his lack of interest would not be beneficial
- by 1953 both Strauss and Eisenhower are discussing how to best deal with Oppenheimer; thought was that he should quietly retire
- however during latter half of 1953 a former chair on the Joint Congressional committee wrote a letter to FBI claiming that Oppenheimer was a spy
- while both Eisenhower and Strauss did not believe allegations, neither was willing to publicly defend him either
- fear of McCarthy- senator who went around accusing individuals of being communist spies (McCarthyism)
- national security and anti-communist feelings rampant
- Klaus Fuchs case in Britain only adds to unrest
- Eisenhower, Strauss and Hoover: decide to suspend security clearance of Oppenheimer; told him that if he resigned quietly, he could avoid AEC potentially humiliating hearing
- despite fact that early association with communist party likely to come out, Oppenheimer refused offer; he had spend most of his years working for the US government and if he resigned, would be like admitting guilt
- did not want to lose power and believed that a hearing, while painful, would remain a confidential inquiry; did not think of it as trial
- this move surprised everyone, and Strauss prepared trial; selected members of Board already against Oppenheimer
- prosecuting lawyer set many traps for Oppenheimer, using skillful arguments and character witnesses
- error’s in Oppenheimer’s memory treated as lies
- example: incident between Oppenheimer, Chevalier and Eltenon
- Oppenheimer successfully portrayed as defector who had tried to hide his communist membership
- those who defended Oppenheimer included Bush, Conant, Von Neumann
- AEC found Oppenheimer to be loyal but still considered him a security risk
- his objections to making hydrogen bomb, “defects in character” and past associations with communists primary reasons for this
- in 1954 was stripped of security clearance and returned to Institute of Advanced Studies in Princeton

II. Cold War Tensions, the Race for Space and Scientific and Technological Developments in the USSR and USA

- right after WWII, countries given American aid in return for adhering to US foreign policy interests
- World Bank, IMF important institutions that export American technology; countries given credits to buy military weapons in return for foreign aid
- Project Paperclip: US tries to get information related to German plans and drawings of rockets
- allow many Nazi scientists to immigrate to country because of new “communist” threat presented by Soviet Union
- controversy when press finds out about this secret transfer of scientists
- usefulness of scientist versus moral and ethical reasoning
- on domestic front, development of interstate highways; initially rationalized as defensive measure but benefited civilians in long run
- Soviets produce world’s first satellite, Sputnik
- leads US to create National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) one year later in 1958
- government also created science advisor post of President and President’s Science Advisory Council
- stockpiling of nuclear weapons by both Soviets and Americans until 80s
- based on strategy of preventing initial strike by enemy for fear of retaliation by enemy who may have enough weapons to strike back
- MAD: mutually assured destruction
- creates atmosphere of fear and paranoia
- threat of accidental wars, other countries obtaining nuclear weapons
- how to control or prevent this from happening?
- civil defense programs encouraged in US: children told what to do in case bomb dropped on them; creation of bomb shelters

LECTURE 7

Telephones, Radios and Televisions

I. Telephone Communications

a. Early Patent Wars

-looking at history of telephone and radio gives us some insight as to how users can shape new technologies
-in many cases, inventors themselves may not know the “best” use for their invention: unforeseen consequences
-development of telephone is a good example of this: examine technical, economic and cultural factors leading to its eventual success
-early telephone promoters compared telephone to telegraph and believed that like this technology, it should be used for practical purposes
-did not really see social value of telephone right away
-early history of telephone rife with priority claims and patent disputes
-Alexander Graham Bell patented his invention in 1876
-Recent scholars suggest “real” inventor of telephone was Italian named Antonio Meucci, who at one point shared lab with Bell: did he have access to his materials?
-Meucci filed caveat (notice of patent) in 1871 but could not afford to renew caveat in 1874; sued Bell for fraud but died in 1889
-by 1878 there were about 10,000 Bell telephones in the US; number of phones triples between 1880-1884
- Bell tried to sell his company to Western Union and asked for $100000; WU refused offer and soon regret decision; with advent of telephone, telegraph companies felt threatened by new competition
- forms rival company and hire Thomas Edison and Elisha Gray to invent new system; compete in all areas including telephone etiquette: Edison’s “hello” versus Bell’s “hoy, hoy”
-leads to new innovations: WU opens switchboard, creates telephone directory in 1878; connects 30000 phones within the year
-Bell sues Western Union for patent infringement and WU states that true inventor of phone is Elisha Gray who filed intent to patent only three hours after Bell had done so
-in court Bell very successful because he had written good patent; by 1879 WU gives up lawsuit but throughout decade, Bell continues to defend his patent (600 court battles)
-Bell Company later called AT&T; victorious monopoly
-settles disputes; gave WU financial compensation for its loss of business

b. Competition in the Telephone Industry (Short-lived)

-Bell had monopoly over telephone but patents would expire by 1894
-during monopoly period: user would be allowed unlimited service within a particular exchange area in return for a flat fee
- rates were relatively high until prior to 1894: average rate was $4.66 per month (13% of monthly wages)
-fears of new competition caused new reductions; once patent expires, lots of competition for telephone services
-result of this was more phones (9x from 1893-1902) and reduced rates
-by 1907, Bell had lost half its US market even though it tried to undermine its competition by various tactics: price wars, political power plays, new services (coin-box telephones, party lines, pay per call fees)
-Theodore Vail: manager of AT&T tries different tactic: buys out competition and move out of territories where it was losing business
-AT&T also uses its existing patents on telephone exchanges that prevents others from building similar networks and refuses to connect local rival systems as a way of dominating long distance market
-In addition, AT&T also starts to focus heavily on in-house research for new innovations which they could then patent
-while AT&T not expanding as much, neither were independents; by 1912 Bell gets back 6% of market; rates now average less than $2 per month (4% of monthly wages) but territory and service varies widely
-by 1913 AT&T agrees to formalize its arrangements with independent operators; starts to divide up local telephone service into “regulated geographic monopolies”
-in US from 1920s to 1980s; by 1929 42% of all households have a telephone

c. Social Uses of the Telephone

-public education about advantages of telephone was considered a necessity by men like Vail
-in big cities, showed “need” for telephone for business
-methods to educate public included advertising, individual selling, informational campaigns tpeople how to use telephone, etc…
-up until the beginning of the 20th century, salesman told public that telephone was like tph; should be used for similar purposes
-special services offered: sports scores, weather reports, train schedules
-by early 1900’s, Bell has national advertising campaign and provides info to its regional sources
-until WWI, stressed practical uses for telephone: business needs, household tasks, emergencies, invitations
-ads highlighting the use of telephones to have conversations scarce
-during the war, telephone primarily used by military and government which caused delays for average customers
-by 1920’s, ads by Bell promoting telephone sociability become more frequent; especially for long distance calls
-this was especially true in Canada: why?
-strategy continues until late 1920’s when lack of sales in comparison to other goods (i.e. automobiles) force Bell to come up with more aggressive marketing strategy encouraging social uses of telephone
-emphasis on sociability and telephone takes back seat with Depression; marketing returns to practical uses of technology (i.e. emergencies)
-during 1930’s advertising mixes messages: telephone used for practical purposes, but also for sociable conversations
-1939 ad emphasizes idea of telephone allowing one to keep in touch with their family and friends: “some one thinks of some one, reaches for the telephone, and all is well.” What does this remind you of?
-Idea of “voice visiting”; shift to focus on conversational usage

d. Changes in Telephone Usage

-while some individuals like Bell thought that the telephone could be used for social purposes, prior to WWI, many believed that social calls were both frivolous and unnecessary
-in fact, these kinds of calls were discouraged even though they could represent up to 30% of all calls
-early telephone vendors thought this was a waste of telephone line usage, especially because people were paying a flat rate
-tried to introduce measures discouraging this: education campaigns highlight “proper” use of telephone, time limits on calls
-after WWI, shift in thinking of telephone as practical necessity to something that could be more of a convenient, comfort or luxury item
-viewing the telephone in this way allowed for vendors to now see value of “trivial social uses”
-industry might have been impacted by what they saw happening with automobiles: discuss further
-rural communities especially saw advantages of phone for social uses; reduce feeling of isolation and disconnect from rest of community
-ads aimed at rural farmers played up this idea more than in urban centers
-women key figures in ideas regarding telephone sociability
-reasons behind changes in telephone usage can be explained by a number of different factors:
-a. economics: early companies saw no profit in social uses of telephone; believed that business use made up for residential usage (they had higher rates, bought more equipment and made more long distance calls)
-flat rate system means social calls took up lines and ate up operator time
-difficulties with constructing phone lines for residents; technical quality between business and residential services
-after WWI this is not the case; vendors looking for new markets and ways to promote telephone usage
- b. technical considerations
- extended calls tied up party lines; this is why “time limits” introduced
-rates of long distance decrease
-c. cultural factors
-early history saw individuals equate telephone with telegraph; telegraph developers, builders and vendors often switched to telephone industry
-telegraph companies served as models for telephone companies
-language: telephone calls = “messages”
-this factor could explain why telephone usage was seen to be the same as telegraph usage: business and practical purposes
-users themselves: educated, wealthy individuals
-shift to social uses after WWI: lower costs, more subscribers, better instruments, new technology, greater privacy

II. Radio Communications

a. Technical History

-history of radio good illustration of corporation monopolies, role of patents, regulations, role of amateur in making technology successful
-first communications technology to use electricity to send/receive signals was the telegraph which was invented in 1844 by Samuel Morse
-Morse code: electrical pulses used to send combinations of dots and dashes, each of which corresponds to letter of alphabet
-Telegraph was a WIRED system (like landline telephones)
-Idea of sending WIRELESS messages occurs when Heinrich Hertz first uses radio transmissions and receptions to test Maxwell’s mathematical equations in 1887
-produces radio waves via an oscillator (device which produced quick electrical pulses)
-Hertz is able to detect these radio waves by twisting a wire with two balls at each end into a circle and placing it near the oscillator
-sparks produced within oscillator and two balls; confirms that electrical waves can travel at speed of light
-Oliver Lodge: perfects radio wave detector called “coherer” in 1894
-Guglielmo Marconi: often considered original “inventor” of the radio; in 1897 he becomes the first person to set up a company that will provide “wireless telegraphy” services using Morse system to send/receive messages
-Marconi’s original company is British and by 1899 he forms an American subsidiary; the US navy becomes one of his main customers for ship to shore communications
-because early radio equipment is so primitive, does not allow for voice communications; radio waves are generated through “sparks” and signal is received by coherer
-over time, technology improves because of following inventions:
John Ambrose Fleming: invents the “diode,” a two element technology which is good detector of received radio waves (1904); sells his device to Marconi
R. Fesseden: creates a system of continuous waves (alternating currents) that could transmit audible signals (1906)
Lee DeForest: develops the “triode” or audion, a three element device that is a better detector of radio waves than the diode, but has an added advantage of being able to amplify sounds (1907)


b. Early Corporate History

-By first decade of 20th century, AT&T also looking for ways to retain control over its wired industry (see telephone notes) and sees radio as new potential threat
-at same time, AT&T wants to improve its long distance telephony and one of their main problems is figuring out ways to better amplify signals
-AT&T management (i.e. Theodore Vail) believes that whoever controlled or supplied telephone “repeaters” (amplifiers) would have a major influence in wireless telegraphy
-by 1912 researchers at Western Electric (AT&T subsidiary) see amplification potential of DeForest’s work
-however, his patent made it impossible for them to develop a better repeater because it covered so many elements of his invention
-AT&T able to purchase de Forest’s patents by 1913 but de Forest’s retains the right to keep them for own use
-By 1914, AT&T conducting many experiments in wireless telegraphy, which they thought could serve as an extension to their wired system
-Patent wars: by 1915 Marconi sues de Forest’s for patent infringement (diode vs. triode); court decisions rule in favor of both
-Everything changes with WWI: military sees many benefits to wireless technology and government puts moratorium on patents; wants all companies to improve production and compensates any patent infringements
-WWI important for radio development in two ways: mass production of component parts such as standardized tubes and sets; lots of new wireless users
-after WWI, US officials did not like fact that British Marconi company had monopoly over international radio communications
-looks to GE who had also undertaken work on radio since early 1900s
-one of their great developments was high frequency alternator which still is not as good as de Forest’s triode
-the Navy then pressures GE to buy out Marconi’s American subsidiary and in 1919 a new corporation is created called the Radio Corporation of America (RCA)
-RCA’s mandate: be radio operating company for ship and intercontinental traffic, and sell radio equipment produced by GE
-RCA and GE exchange all patent rights until 1945
-However, RCA had problem: could not manufacture any goods without gaining access to Westinghouse and AT&T patents
-problem solved by giving these two companies a stake in RCA
-each group has different goals: GE, RCA and Westinghouse to focus on wireless communications; AT&T’s focus is on wired transmissions
-all groups able to hold onto their own particular area of interest without worrying too much about potential competition from the other for a few years, but commercial potential of radio destroys this

c. Amateur Radio Hobbyists and the Transformation of Radio (Wireless Telegraphy to Broadcasting)

-radio during its early years was seen as form of wireless telegraph; point to point communications
-early radio difficult to control: messages could go in many directions, no privacy, interference problems
-problem of privacy one major criticism in early years because technology was seen as a kind of wireless telegraph
-military thus prime customer of new system
-by 1920s, amateur radio operators played a large role in reshaping ideas about radio: will begin to find new ways of using wireless systems
-amateurs believe no one should have control over the “ether” and that neither the military or private companies have monopoly rights
-many of these operators gained their knowledge and experience with wireless systems in WWI, and thanks to the mass production of radio equipment, began purchasing apparatus from RCA and Westinghouse
-amateurs also constructed own equipment to send and receive messages; they engaged in pranks and sent false orders to military
-more importantly, amateurs were amongst the earliest radio broadcasters: amateurs would broadcast news, weather, and music over the air, thus helping to create a new application or use of this technology

d. Enter Big Business and New Problems in the Radio Industry

-soon after, commercial possibilities of radio begin to be seen by big business; Westinghouse Electric creates first broadcasting station in 1920 (KDKA)
-by 1922 there are 500 broadcast stations, and by 1923 performers are demanding compensation for their services; idea of radio sponsors and radio advertisements soon gains popularity
-radio boom = a demand for more radio equipment, especially radio receivers
-since selling radio equipment was RCA territory, this causes AT&T to become concerned about missed opportunities in wireless business
-AT&T starts to try and push out its former “partners” in broadcast market and wants to develop its own monopoly in radio like they had with telephones
-Plan backfires: AT&T broadcast monopoly condemned; AT&T accused of depriving public of entertainment and soon company fears this may affect their telephone business
-RCA versus AT&T: RCA succeeds in defending patent in 1927 that gives them full control of all major circuit patents for radio receivers
-AT&T eventually retreats from radio business to concentrate on telephone monopoly
-AT&T given control of all two way communications; RCA must use AT&T’s telephone lines as opposed to its own or Western Union


e. Licensing and Governance of the Radio Frequency Spectrum

-popularity of broadcasting creates situation where radio spectrum overused and overpopulated
- lots of users created problems of frequency interference
- Titanic sinking in 1912 played large role in initial radio regulations; after this all ships required to have wireless equipment and skilled operators on board
-in 1912 Department of Commerce and Labor requires that all broadcasters obtain license which outlines what frequency they could operate on and at which times; state distress calls are top priority
-gives amateurs portion of spectrum considered useless: short waves 200m or less
-navy given use of spectrum between 600 and 1600; all other private stations given use of spectrum below or above these numbers
-these regulations are successfully challenged in court, and chaos ensues until the 1920s
-radio ether considered public domain; government promises to prevent any companies from obtaining monopoly of spectrum
-Federal Radio Commission (FRC) is set up in 1927 to regulate broadcasters; they are given authority to issue licenses, assign frequencies
-FRC eventually becomes the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1934; attempt to merge all communications regulations under one authority

III. Television Communications

a. Early Systems

- While the term “television” was coined in Scientific American in 1907, people had already begun experiments to electronically transmit pictures in late 1800s
- First experiments in television relied on mechanical devices like Nipkov disk (1884) but these attempts were not very successful
- British inventor John Baird creates the first successful mechanical television system in 1929
- Too many drawbacks with mechanical systems had researchers searching for “all electronic” ways to sending and receiving pictures by 1920s
- One important device that would make all-electronic systems a reality was Ferdnand Braun’s cathode ray tube (a device where a magnet deflects a beam of electrons that move in closed tube) invented in 1897
- Russian Boris Rosing then uses this tube for television experiments (placed photoelectric cells in tube and activated them using electrons)


b. Patent Wars

- Who is the “father” of television
- Dispute centers around American inventor Philo Farnsworth and Russian inventor Vladimir Zworykin
- Farnsworth – experiments with television begin as early as 1921 and in 1926 is given private funding to set up research labs in San Francisco
- Labs result in a number of patents being issued to Farnsworth
- Zworykin comes to US and becomes employed at RCA – applies as early as 1923 for television patents but is denied because system doesn’t quite work
- In 1930, Farnsworth allows Zworykin to come and visit labs not knowing he works for RCA and soon after, Zworykin creates first workable television camera called the “iconoscope” which he allowed to file under 1923 patent
- RCA also very interested in television and tries to buy on Farnsworth; however he refuses and the two go to court, with RCA stating Zworykin built the first television camera, not Farnsworth
- Courts decide in favor of Farnsworth around 1935, but by the time television gains commercial popularity after WWII, many of Farnworth’s patents have already expired
- Many disputes between RCA and Farnsworth before the two finally settle differences
- RCA then begins broadcasting to small population in NYC in 1939 but cannot produce commercial system because there are no technical standards in place as yet

c. Standardization and its role in establishing new technologies

- What is standardization? It is process of establishing a technical standard among competing entries in a market that will help competition and benefit consumers in areas such as quality, reliability, safety, efficiency and interchangeability (compatibility)
- Having standards in place prior to putting TVs on market was therefore important because at time, competing companies all have different ways of transmitting, receiving TV images
- RCA at time has most complete system and wants FCC to begin allowing commercial broadcasts and believed their standards should be used if FCC permitted the broadcasting of television programs
- competitors did not want this to happen, because it meant that they would have to pay royalties to RCA to use its patents
- FCC allows commercial television broadcasting in 1940; reverses decision one year later and creates a committee to look into problem of standards
- WWII stops further commercial research, but rapid expansion of television begins in US in 1940s and 1950s because standards are imposed; they allow for equipment and procedures to be same across board


IV. FM broadcasting and Television: A Study in Spectrum Allocation

a. Development of FM Radio

- Story of FM broadcasting shows us how new (and better) technologies often fail to achieve commercial success right away because of older, established technologies
- also reveals much of the politics that lay behind supposed “technical” decisions related to development
- Frequency modulation radio developed by Edwin Armstrong who received patent for FM in 1933
- FM system technically superior to system of amplitude modulation (AM) which was dominant broadcasting system at the time
- AM: varying the strength of amplitude of wave adds messages; FM: information encoded by changing wave frequency
- Armstrong wanted to eliminate many of the deficiencies associated with AM: static, interference between channels and poor sound
- FM solves many of these problems
- Armstrong first demonstrates his invention in 1936 and believed that within five years, it would supplant AM radio
- however, this does not happen until 1979: WHY?
- large corporations like RCA/NBC had heavily invested in AM radio and wanted to protect their economic interests

b. Problems for Armstrong

- from 1940 onwards, a series of FCC decisions “against” FM in addition to patent disputes causes Armstrong to commit suicide
- early on, Armstrong had good relationship with RCA; however, when he presented his findings on FM to the corporation, they told him their focus was on developing TV and not FM (1936)
- RCA begins intensive lobbying campaign against FM: lobbies government regulators; suggests that FM not a viable technology, despite knowing that FM experiments have been very successful
- since both FM and TV would operate at frequency above 30 MHz, Armstrong sees this “push” by RCA towards TV as problematic for FM: would lead to shortage of channels
- he believes RCA’s interest in TV primarily motivated by fact that they (RCA) wants to keep monopoly of AM radio, especially because it appeared at time that commercial television far away
- in May 1936, FCC had hearing to decide what frequency bands to allocate to FM and TV on newly available high frequencies (above 30MHz): decides to give FM exclusive use of one MHz band (42MHz) which equaled 4 channels, and experimental TV given the 50MHz band which resulted in 8 channels
- during these hearings, Armstrong accuses RCA of suppressing information about the viability of FM
c. Controversial FCC Decisions and what it means for FM Radio

- by 1939, RCA wants FCC to make allocation permanent; this would have meant stilted growth for FM
- displeases other manufacturers like GE and Zenith who were interested in developing FM equipment; by 1940 FM enthusiasts have formed the FM Broadcasters Inc.
- FCC hearing at this time acknowledges improprieties of RCA and tries to limit radio monopoly
- At 1940 FCC hearings sees transfer of television number one channel to FM (44-50MHz); allows FM to expand to almost 40 channels
- by 1945, controversial FCC decision to place FM stations in even higher frequency (88-106MHz) instead of the 42-50 MHz frequency they had operated in since 1941
- television channels would now be placed in the lower band where FM used to be
- while decision gave FM more (90) channels; it made old FM system obsolete; forced engineers, manufacturers and broadcasters who had spent years perfecting system to start over; set back FM industry by many years and was bitterly contested by FM industry

d. The FCC 1945 Decision: Things to Consider

- Radio Technical Planning Board created in 1943, asked to look at question of radio standards
- some believed FM’s place on spectrum was problematic because of sky wave interference concerns
- however, the Chief Engineer of the Board of Standards, Dillinger, states that this is not a well founded fact and RTPB decides to not to recommend moving FM to higher band
- during FCC hearings, Oliver Lodge of CBS brings this up again
- some see this as smokescreen, but answer might have more to do with corporate struggles over television
- CBS wanted to put TV above 300 MHz instead of the 100 MHz band because they believed there was more room for growth
- other established industries like RCA/NBC wanted to keep television at lower frequencies where they had a greater stake
- this might be why CBS wanted to move FM higher; to be able to place television frequencies in a place where there was lots of room for growth
- still, cannot discount fact that FM did receive more channels; maybe FCC thought it was doing the right thing and actually helping FM industry in the long run